How Does Genetically Engineered Animals Look Like

How Does Genetically Engineered Animals Look Like

Animal that has been genetically modified

Genetically modified animals are animals that have been genetically modified for a variety of purposes including producing drugs, enhancing yields, increasing resistance to disease, etc. The vast majority of genetically modified animals are at the research stage while the number close to inbound the marketplace remains small. ^[1]

Production [ edit ]

The process of genetically applied science mammals is a tiresome, tedious, and expensive process. ^[2] As with other genetically modified organisms (GMOs), start genetic engineers must isolate the factor they wish to insert into the host organism. This can exist taken from a prison cell containing the gene ^[iii] or artificially synthesised. ^[4] If the called gene or the donor organism'south genome has been well studied it may already be accessible from a genetic library. The gene is then combined with other genetic elements, including a promoter and terminator region and ordinarily a selectable marker. ^[5]

A number of techniques are bachelor for inserting the isolated gene into the host genome. With animals DNA is mostly inserted into using microinjection, where it can be injected through the cell's nuclear envelope directly into the nucleus, or through the use of viral vectors. ^[6] The first transgenic animals were produced by injecting viral Deoxyribonucleic acid into embryos and then implanting the embryos in females. ^[7] Information technology is necessary to ensure that the inserted Deoxyribonucleic acid is present in the embryonic stem cells. ^[8] The embryo would develop and it would exist hoped that some of the genetic material would exist incorporated into the reproductive cells. And so researchers would accept to wait until the beast reached breeding age then offspring would be screened for presence of the gene in every cell, using PCR, Southern hybridization, and DNA sequencing. ^[ix]

New technologies are making genetic modifications easier and more precise. ^[2] Gene targeting techniques, which creates double-stranded breaks and takes advantage on the cells natural homologous recombination repair systems, take been developed to target insertion to verbal locations. Genome editing uses artificially engineered nucleases that create breaks at specific points. There are four families of engineered nucleases: meganucleases, ^{[10] [11]} zinc finger nucleases, ^{[12] [xiii]} transcription activator-similar effector nucleases (TALENs), ^{[14] [15]} and the Cas9-guideRNA organization (adapted from CRISPR). ^{[xvi] [17]} TALEN and CRISPR are the two most normally used and each has its own advantages. ^[18] TALENs have greater target specificity, while CRISPR is easier to design and more efficient. ^[18] The development of the CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing system has finer halved the amount of time needed to develop genetically modified animals. ^[nineteen]

History [ edit ]

Humans have domesticated animals since around 12,000 BCE, using selective convenance or artificial pick (as contrasted with natural choice). The process of selective breeding, in which organisms with desired traits (and thus with the desired genes) are used to brood the next generation and organisms defective the trait are not bred, is a precursor to the modern concept of genetic modification ^{[20] : ane} Diverse advancements in genetics allowed humans to direct modify the DNA and therefore genes of organisms. In 1972 Paul Berg created the outset recombinant DNA molecule when he combined Dna from a monkey virus with that of the lambda virus. ^{[21] [22]}

In 1974 Rudolf Jaenisch created a transgenic mouse by introducing strange Dna into its embryo, making it the world's start transgenic animal. ^{[23] [24]} However it took another eight years before transgenic mice were developed that passed the transgene to their offspring. ^{[25] [26]} Genetically modified mice were created in 1984 that carried cloned oncogenes, predisposing them to developing cancer. ^[27] Mice with genes knocked out (knockout mouse) were created in 1989. The get-go transgenic livestock were produced in 1985 ^[28] and the first animal to synthesise transgenic proteins in their milk were mice, ^[29] engineered to produce human tissue plasminogen activator in 1987. ^[xxx]

The first genetically modified animal to exist commercialised was the GloFish, a Zebra fish with a fluorescent gene added that allows it to glow in the dark nether ultraviolet light. ^[31] It was released to the The states market in 2003. ^[32] The first genetically modified creature to be approved for food use was AquAdvantage salmon in 2015. ^[33] The salmon were transformed with a growth hormone-regulating gene from a Pacific Chinook salmon and a promoter from an ocean pout enabling it to grow year-round instead of but during spring and summer. ^[34]

Mammals [ edit ]

Some chimeras, similar the blotched mouse shown, are created through genetic modification techniques similar gene targeting.

GM mammals are created for research purposes, production of industrial or therapeutic products, agricultural uses or improving their health. In that location is too a market for creating genetically modified pets. ^[35]

Medicine [ edit ]

Mammals are the best models for human disease, making genetic engineered ones vital to the discovery and development of cures and treatments for many serious diseases. Knocking out genes responsible for human genetic disorders allows researchers to written report the mechanism of the affliction and to test possible cures. Genetically modified mice have been the most common mammals used in biomedical research, as they are inexpensive and easy to dispense. Pigs are also a skillful target, because they have a similar body size, anatomical features, physiology, pathophysiological response, and diet. ^[36] Nonhuman primates are the near similar model organisms to humans, but there is less public credence toward using them as research animals. ^[37] In 2009, scientists announced that they had successfully transferred a gene into a primate species (marmosets) and produced a stable line of convenance transgenic primates for the get-go time. ^{[38] [39]} Their first research target for these marmosets was Parkinson'south disease, merely they were also considering amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Huntington'due south disease. ^[40]

Transgenic sus scrofa for cheese product

Homo proteins expressed in mammals are more likely to exist similar to their natural counterparts than those expressed in plants or microorganisms. Stable expression has been achieved in sheep, pigs, rats, and other animals. In 2009, the commencement human biological drug produced from such an animal, a goat., was approved. The drug, ATryn, is an anticoagulant which reduces the probability of blood clots during surgery or childbirth was extracted from the goat'due south milk. ^[41] Human being blastoff-1-antitrypsin is another protein that is used in treating humans with this deficiency. ^[42] Another area is in creating pigs with greater chapters for human organ transplants (xenotransplantation). Pigs have been genetically modified and then that their organs can no longer deport retroviruses ^[43] or have modifications to reduce the chance of rejection. ^{[44] [45]} Pig lungs from genetically modified pigs are being considered for transplantation into humans. ^{[46] [47]} In that location is even potential to create chimeric pigs that can carry human organs. ^{[36] [48]}

Livestock [ edit ]

Livestock are modified with the intention of improving economically important traits such as growth-rate, quality of meat, milk composition, disease resistance and survival. Animals take been engineered to grow faster, be healthier ^[49] and resist diseases. ^[50] Modifications have too improved the wool production of sheep and udder health of cows. ^[1]

Goats accept been genetically engineered to produce milk with strong spiderweb-like silk proteins in their milk. ^[51] The goat factor sequence has been modified, using fresh umbilical cords taken from kids, in order to lawmaking for the human enzyme lysozyme. Researchers wanted to modify the milk produced past the goats, to contain lysozyme in order to fight off bacteria causing diarrhea in humans. ^[52]

Enviropig was a genetically enhanced line of Yorkshire pigs in Canada created with the capability of digesting plant phosphorus more efficiently than conventional Yorkshire pigs. ^{[53] [54]} The A transgene construct consisting of a promoter expressed in the murine parotid gland and the Escherichia coli phytase factor was introduced into the hog embryo by pronuclear microinjection. ^[55] This caused the pigs to produce the enzyme phytase, which breaks down the boxy phosphorus, in their saliva. ^{[53] [56]} As a result, they excrete xxx to seventy% less phosphorus in manure depending upon the historic period and diet. ^{[53] [56]} The lower concentrations of phosphorus in surface runoff reduces algal growth, considering phosphorus is the limiting nutrient for algae. ^[53] Because algae eat large amounts of oxygen, excessive growth can result in expressionless zones for fish. Funding for the Enviropig program ended in April 2012, ^[57] and as no new partners were establish the pigs were killed. ^[58] However, the genetic material volition be stored at the Canadian Agronomical Genetics Repository Program. In 2006, a pig was engineered to produce omega-three fat acids through the expression of a roundworm gene. ^[59]

In 1990, the earth's starting time transgenic bovine, Herman the Bull, was adult. Herman was genetically engineered by micro-injected embryonic cells with the human gene coding for lactoferrin. The Dutch Parliament inverse the police force in 1992 to permit Herman to reproduce. 8 calves were built-in in 1994 and all calves inherited the lactoferrin gene. ^[60] With subsequent sirings, Herman fathered a full of 83 calves. ^[61] Dutch law required Herman to be slaughtered at the decision of the experiment. Notwithstanding the Dutch Agriculture Government minister at the fourth dimension, Jozias van Aartsen, granted him a reprieve provided he did not have more offspring later public and scientists rallied to his defence force. ^[62] Together with cloned cows named Holly and Belle, he lived out his retirement at Naturalis, the National Museum of Natural History in Leiden. ^[62] On 2 Apr 2004, Herman was euthanised by veterinarians from the Academy of Utrecht because he suffered from osteoarthritis. ^{[63] [62]} At the time of his death Herman was one of the oldest bulls in the Netherlands. ^[63] Herman's hide has been preserved and mounted past taxidermists and is permanently on display in Naturalis. They say that he represents the kickoff of a new era in the way human deals with nature, an icon of scientific progress, and the subsequent public discussion of these problems. ^[63]

In October 2017, Chinese scientists appear they used CRISPR applied science to create of a line of pigs with better body temperature regulation, resulting in about 24% less torso fat than typical livestock. ^[64]

Researchers take developed GM dairy cattle to grow without horns (sometimes referred to as "polled") which can cause injuries to farmers and other animals. Deoxyribonucleic acid was taken from the genome of Red Angus cattle, which is known to suppress horn growth, and inserted into cells taken from an elite Holstein balderdash chosen "Randy". Each of the progeny will be a clone of Randy, but without his horns, and their offspring should besides be hornless. ^[65] In 2011, Chinese scientists generated dairy cows genetically engineered with genes from human beings to produce milk that would exist the same as human breast milk. ^[66] This could potentially benefit mothers who cannot produce breast milk merely want their children to take breast milk rather than formula. ^{[67] [68]} The researchers merits these transgenic cows to be identical to regular cows. ^[69] Two months after, scientists from Argentina presented Rosita, a transgenic cow incorporating two homo genes, to produce milk with similar backdrop as human breast milk. ^[lxx] In 2012, researchers from New Zealand also developed a genetically engineered cow that produced allergy-free milk. ^[71]

In 2016 Jayne Raper and a team announced the first trypanotolerant transgenic moo-cow in the world. This team, spanning the International Livestock Research Institute, Scotland'south Rural College, the Roslin Institute'due south Centre for Tropical Livestock Genetics and Wellness, and the City University of New York, announced that a Kenyan Boran balderdash had been built-in and had already successfully had two children. Tumaini - named for the Swahili discussion for "promise" - carries a trypanolytic gene from a baboon via CRISPR/Cas9. ^{[72] [73]}

Research [ edit ]

Scientists have genetically engineered several organisms, including some mammals, to include greenish fluorescent poly peptide (GFP), for research purposes. ^[74] GFP and other similar reporting genes allow easy visualisation and localisation of the products of the genetic modification. ^[75] Fluorescent pigs take been bred to study human organ transplants, regenerating ocular photoreceptor cells, and other topics. ^[76] In 2011 green-fluorescent cats were created to find therapies for HIV/AIDS and other diseases ^[77] as feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) is related to HIV. ^[78] Researchers from the University of Wyoming accept adult a style to contain spiders' silk-spinning genes into goats, allowing the researchers to harvest the silk protein from the goats' milk for a diversity of applications. ^[79]

Conservation [ edit ]

Genetic modification of the myxoma virus has been proposed to conserve European wild rabbits in the Iberian peninsula and to assistance regulate them in Australia. To protect the Iberian species from viral diseases, the myxoma virus was genetically modified to immunize the rabbits, while in Commonwealth of australia the same myxoma virus was genetically modified to lower fertility in the Australian rabbit population. ^[eighty] There have also been suggestions that genetic engineering science could be used to bring animals back from extinction. It involves changing the genome of a close living relative to resemble the extinct ane and is currently being attempted with the passenger dove. ^[81] Genes associated with the woolly mammoth accept been added to the genome of an African Elephant, although the pb researcher says he has no intention of using live elephants. ^[82]

Humans [ edit ]

Gene therapy ^[83] uses genetically modified viruses to deliver genes which can cure disease in humans. Although factor therapy is still relatively new, it has had some successes. It has been used to treat genetic disorders such equally severe combined immunodeficiency ^[84] and Leber'due south congenital amaurosis. ^[85] Treatments are also being developed for a range of other currently incurable diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, ^[86] sickle prison cell anemia, ^[87] Parkinson's affliction, ^{[88] [89]} cancer, ^{[90] [91] [92]} diabetes, ^[93] middle disease, ^[94] and muscular dystrophy. ^[95] These treatments only affect somatic cells, which means that whatsoever changes would non be inheritable. Germline gene therapy results in whatever modify beingness inheritable, which has raised concerns within the scientific community. ^{[96] [97]} In 2015, CRISPR was used to edit the DNA of non-viable human embryos. ^{[98] [99]} In November 2022, He Jiankui announced that he had edited the genomes of ii human embryos, to attempt to disable the CCR5 gene, which codes for a receptor that HIV uses to enter cells. He said that twin girls- Lulu and Nana, had been born a few weeks before, and that they carried functional copies of CCR5 along with disabled CCR5 (mosaicism), and were yet vulnerable to HIV. The work was widely condemned as unethical, dangerous, and premature. ^[100]

Fish [ edit ]

Genetically modified fish are used for scientific enquiry, equally pets and equally a food source. Aquaculture is a growing industry, currently providing over half the consumed fish worldwide. ^[101] Through genetic engineering it is possible to increment growth rates, reduce food intake, remove allergenic properties, increment cold tolerance and provide disease resistance.

Detecting pollution [ edit ]

Fish can also be used to discover aquatic pollution or part equally bioreactors. ^[102] Several groups accept been developing zebrafish to detect pollution by attaching fluorescent proteins to genes activated by the presence of pollutants. The fish will and so glow and can exist used as environmental sensors. ^{[103] [104]}

Pets [ edit ]

The GloFish is a make of genetically modified fluorescent zebrafish with bright crimson, green, and orange fluorescent colour. It was originally developed past 1 of the groups to detect pollution, but is now part of the ornamental fish merchandise, becoming the beginning genetically modified beast to go publicly available every bit a pet when information technology was introduced for auction in 2003. ^[105]

Research [ edit ]

GM fish are widely used in bones research in genetics and evolution. 2 species of fish- zebrafish and medaka, are well-nigh unremarkably modified, because they have optically clear chorions (membranes in the egg), rapidly develop, and the 1-cell embryo is piece of cake to see and microinject with transgenic Deoxyribonucleic acid. ^[106] Zebrafish are model organisms for developmental processes, regeneration, genetics, behaviour, disease mechanisms, and toxicity testing. ^[107] Their transparency allows researchers to notice developmental stages, intestinal functions, and neoplasm growth. ^{[108] [109]} The generation of transgenic protocols (whole organism, cell or tissue specific, tagged with reporter genes) has increased the level of data gained by studying these fish. ^[110]

Growth [ edit ]

GM fish have been developed with promoters driving an over-production of "all fish" growth hormone for use in the aquaculture industry to increase the speed of development and potentially reduce fishing pressure level on wild stocks. This has resulted in dramatic growth enhancement in several species, including salmon, ^[111] trout ^[112] and tilapia. ^[113]

AquaBounty Technologies have produced a salmon that can mature in half the time as wild salmon. ^[114] The fish is an Atlantic salmon with a Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) gene inserted. This allows the fish to produce growth hormones all year round compared to the wild-blazon fish that produces the hormone for only part of the year. ^[115] The fish besides has a 2nd gene inserted from the eel-like ocean pout that acts like an "on" switch for the hormone. ^[115] Pout also have antifreeze proteins in their claret, which allow the GM salmon to survive nigh-freezing waters and continue their development. ^[116] The wild-blazon salmon takes 24 to 30 months to reach market size (4–6 kg) whereas the producers of the GM salmon say it requires just 18 months for the GM fish to achieve this. ^{[116] [117] [118]} In November 2015, the FDA of the USA approved the AquAdvantage salmon for commercial product, auction and consumption, ^[119] the outset non-plant GMO food to exist commercialised. ^[120]

AquaBounty say that to prevent the genetically modified fish inadvertently breeding with wild salmon, all the fish will be female and reproductively sterile, ^[118] although a small-scale percentage of the females may remain fertile. ^[115] Some opponents of the GM salmon have dubbed it the "Frankenfish". ^{[115] [121]}

Insects [ edit ]

Research [ edit ]

In biological inquiry, transgenic fruit flies ( Drosophila melanogaster ) are model organisms used to study the effects of genetic changes on evolution. ^[122] Fruit flies are frequently preferred over other animals due to their short life bike and depression maintenance requirements. It too has a relatively simple genome compared to many vertebrates, with typically only one copy of each gene, making phenotypic assay easy. ^[123] Drosophila have been used to study genetics and inheritance, embryonic evolution, learning, beliefs, and aging. ^[124] Transposons (particularly P elements) are well developed in Drosophila and provided an early method to add transgenes to their genome, although this has been taken over by more than modernistic factor-editing techniques. ^[125]

Population control [ edit ]

Due to their significance to human health, scientists are looking at ways to control mosquitoes through genetic technology. Malaria-resistant mosquitoes have been developed in the laboratory. ^[126] by inserting a gene that reduces the evolution of the malaria parasite ^[127] and then apply homing endonucleases to rapidly spread that cistron throughout the male population (known as a gene bulldoze). ^[128] This has been taken farther by swapping it for a lethal gene. ^{[129] [130]} In trials the populations of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, the single virtually important carrier of dengue fever and Zika virus, were reduced past between 80% and past xc%. ^{[131] [132] [130]} Another approach is to use the sterile insect technique, whereby males genetically engineered to be sterile out compete viable males, to reduce population numbers. ^[133]

Other insect pests that make bonny targets are moths. Diamondback moths cause Us$four to $5 billion of damage a twelvemonth worldwide. ^[134] The approach is like to the mosquitoes, where males transformed with a gene that prevents females from reaching maturity will be released. ^[135] They underwent field trials in 2017. ^[134] Genetically modified moths accept previously been released in field trials. ^[136] A strain of pink bollworm that were sterilised with radiation were genetically engineered to limited a red fluorescent protein making it easier for researchers to monitor them. ^[137]

Industry [ edit ]

Silkworm, the larvae stage of Bombyx mori, is an economically of import insect in sericulture. Scientists are developing strategies to enhance silk quality and quantity. There is also potential to utilize the silk producing mechanism to make other valuable proteins. ^[138] Proteins expressed by silkworms include; human serum albumin, human collagen α-chain, mouse monoclonal antibody and Northward-glycanase. ^[139] Silkworms have been created that produce spider silk, a stronger merely extremely difficult to harvest silk, ^[140] and fifty-fifty novel silks. ^[141]

Birds [ edit ]

Attempts to produce genetically modified birds began earlier 1980. ^[142] Chickens take been genetically modified for a variety of purposes. This includes studying embryo development, ^[143] preventing the manual of bird flu ^[144] and providing evolutionary insights using reverse engineering to recreate dinosaur-similar phenotypes. ^[145] A GM chicken that produces the drug Kanuma, an enzyme that treats a rare condition, in its egg passed regulatory approving in 2015. ^[146]

Disease control [ edit ]

One potential use of GM birds could be to reduce the spread of avian illness. Researchers at Roslin Constitute have produced a strain of GM chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) that does not transmit avian influenza to other birds; still, these birds are still susceptible to contracting it. The genetic modification is an RNA molecule that prevents the virus reproduction past mimicking the region of the flu virus genome that controls replication. It is referred to equally a "decoy" because it diverts the influenza virus enzyme, the polymerase, from functions that are required for virus replication. ^[147]

Evolutionary insights [ edit ]

A team of geneticists led past Academy of Montana paleontologist Jack Horner is seeking to alter a chicken to express several features nowadays in ancestral maniraptorans but absent in modern birds, such as teeth and a long tail, ^[148] creating what has been dubbed a 'chickenosaurus'. ^[149] Parallel projects have produced chicken embryos expressing dinosaur-like skull, ^[150] leg, ^[145] and foot ^[151] anatomy.

Amphibians [ edit ]

Genetically modified frogs, in particular Xenopus laevis and Xenopus tropicalis , are used in development biology. GM frogs can too exist used as pollution sensors, especially for endocrine disrupting chemicals. ^[152] At that place are proposals to apply genetic engineering to command cane toads in Australia. ^{[153] [154]}

Nematodes [ edit ]

The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is one of the major model organisms for researching molecular biology. ^[155] RNA interference (RNAi) was discovered in C elegans ^[156] and could exist induced by simply feeding them bacteria modified to express double stranded RNA. ^[157] It is as well relatively piece of cake to produce stable transgenic nematodes and this along with RNAi are the major tools used in studying their genes. ^[158] The most mutual utilize of transgenic nematodes has been studying factor expression and localisation past attaching reporter genes. Transgenes tin can also be combined with RNAi to rescue phenotypes, altered to written report gene role, imaged in real fourth dimension as the cells develop or used to control expression for different tissues or developmental stages. ^[158] Transgenic nematodes have been used to study viruses, ^[159] toxicology, ^[160] and diseases ^{[161] [162]} and to detect environmental pollutants. ^[163]

Other [ edit ]

Systems have been developed to create transgenic organisms in a wide multifariousness of other animals. The gene responsible for Albinism in body of water cucumbers has been establish and used to engineer white sea cucumbers, a rare delicacy. The technology as well opens the way to investigate the genes responsible for some of the cucumbers more unusual traits, including hibernating in summer, eviscerating their intestines, and dissolving their bodies upon death. ^[164] Flatworms have the ability to regenerate themselves from a unmarried cell. ^[165] Until 2017 there was no effective way to transform them, which hampered inquiry. By using microinjection and radiations scientists take now created the showtime genetically modified flatworms. ^[166] The bristle worm, a marine annelid, has been modified. It is of interest due to its reproductive cycle beingness synchronised with lunar phases, regeneration chapters and slow development charge per unit. ^[167] Cnidaria such as Hydra and the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis are attractive model organisms to study the evolution of immunity and certain developmental processes. ^[168] Other organisms that have been genetically modified include snails, ^[169] geckos, turtles, ^[170] crayfish, oysters, shrimp, clams, abalone ^[171] and sponges. ^[172]

References [ edit ]

1. ^ ^{a b} Forabosco F, Löhmus Grand, Rydhmer Fifty, Sundström LF (May 2013). "Genetically modified farm animals and fish in agronomics: A review". Livestock Scientific discipline. 153 (one–three): 1–ix. doi:x.1016/j.livsci.2013.01.002.
2. ^ ^{a b} Murray, Joo (xx). Genetically modified animals. Canada: Brainwaving
3. ^ Nicholl DS (2008-05-29). An Introduction to Genetic Engineering . Cambridge University Press. p. 34. ISBN 9781139471787 .
4. ^ Liang J, Luo Y, Zhao H (2011). "Synthetic biological science: putting synthesis into biological science". Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Systems Biology and Medicine. 3 (one): 7–20. doi:10.1002/wsbm.104. PMC 3057768 . PMID21064036.
5. ^ Berg P, Mertz JE (January 2010). "Personal reflections on the origins and emergence of recombinant DNA technology". Genetics. 184 (1): 9–17. doi:10.1534/genetics.109.112144. PMC 2815933 . PMID20061565.
6. ^ Chen I, Dubnau D (March 2004). "DNA uptake during bacterial transformation". Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 2 (3): 241–9. doi:10.1038/nrmicro844. PMID15083159. S2CID205499369.
7. ^ Jaenisch R, Mintz B (April 1974). "Simian virus 40 DNA sequences in DNA of healthy adult mice derived from preimplantation blastocysts injected with viral DNA". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United states of america. 71 (4): 1250–four. Bibcode:1974PNAS...71.1250J. doi: 10.1073/pnas.71.iv.1250 . PMC 388203 . PMID4364530.
8. ^ National Research Council (US) Commission on Identifying and Assessing Unintended Effects of Genetically Engineered Foods on Man Health (2004-01-01). Methods and Mechanisms for Genetic Manipulation of Plants, Animals, and Microorganisms . National Academies Press (US).
9. ^ Setlow JK (2002-10-31). Genetic Engineering: Principles and Methods . Springer Science & Business Media. p. 109. ISBN 9780306472800 .
10. ^ Grizot S, Smith J, Daboussi F, Prieto J, Redondo P, Merino N, Villate M, Thomas S, Lemaire L, Montoya G, Blanco FJ, Pâques F, Duchateau P (September 2009). "Efficient targeting of a SCID gene by an engineered single-concatenation homing endonuclease". Nucleic Acids Inquiry. 37 (16): 5405–19. doi:10.1093/nar/gkp548. PMC 2760784 . PMID19584299.
11. ^ Gao H, Smith J, Yang M, Jones Southward, Djukanovic Five, Nicholson MG, West A, Bidney D, Falco SC, Jantz D, Lyznik LA (January 2010). "Heritable targeted mutagenesis in maize using a designed endonuclease". The Constitute Periodical. 61 (1): 176–87. doi: ten.1111/j.1365-313X.2009.04041.x . PMID19811621.
12. ^ Townsend JA, Wright DA, Winfrey RJ, Fu F, Maeder ML, Joung JK, Voytas DF (May 2009). "Loftier-frequency modification of constitute genes using engineered zinc-finger nucleases". Nature. 459 (7245): 442–5. Bibcode:2009Natur.459..442T. doi:10.1038/nature07845. PMC 2743854 . PMID19404258.
13. ^ Shukla VK, Doyon Y, Miller JC, DeKelver RC, Moehle EA, Worden SE, Mitchell JC, Arnold NL, Gopalan S, Meng X, Choi VM, Rock JM, Wu YY, Katibah GE, Zhifang G, McCaskill D, Simpson MA, Blakeslee B, Greenwalt SA, Butler HJ, Hinkley SJ, Zhang L, Rebar EJ, Gregory PD, Urnov FD (May 2009). "Precise genome modification in the crop species Zea mays using zinc-finger nucleases". Nature. 459 (7245): 437–41. Bibcode:2009Natur.459..437S. doi:ten.1038/nature07992. PMID19404259. S2CID4323298.
14. ^ Christian M, Cermak T, Doyle EL, Schmidt C, Zhang F, Hummel A, Bogdanove AJ, Voytas DF (October 2010). "Targeting DNA double-strand breaks with TAL effector nucleases". Genetics. 186 (2): 757–61. doi:10.1534/genetics.110.120717. PMC 2942870 . PMID20660643.
15. ^ Li T, Huang South, Jiang WZ, Wright D, Spalding MH, Weeks DP, Yang B (January 2011). "TAL nucleases (TALNs): hybrid proteins equanimous of TAL effectors and FokI Deoxyribonucleic acid-cleavage domain". Nucleic Acids Research. 39 (1): 359–72. doi:10.1093/nar/gkq704. PMC 3017587 . PMID20699274.
16. ^ Esvelt KM, Wang HH (2013). "Genome-scale engineering for systems and synthetic biology". Molecular Systems Biology. ix: 641. doi:10.1038/msb.2012.66. PMC 3564264 . PMID23340847.
17. ^ Tan WS, Carlson DF, Walton MW, Fahrenkrug SC, Hackett PB (2012). "Precision editing of large fauna genomes". Advances in Genetics Volume 80. Advances in Genetics. Vol. 80. pp. 37–97. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-404742-6.00002-eight. ISBN 9780124047426 . PMC 3683964 . PMID23084873.
18. ^ ^{a b} Malzahn A, Lowder Fifty, Qi Y (2017-04-24). "Institute genome editing with TALEN and CRISPR". Cell & Bioscience. 7: 21. doi:ten.1186/s13578-017-0148-four. PMC 5404292 . PMID28451378.
19. ^ "How CRISPR is Spreading Through the Animal Kingdom". www.pbs.org . Retrieved 2022-12-20 .
20. ^ Clive Root (2007). Domestication . Greenwood Publishing Groups.
21. ^ Jackson DA, Symons RH, Berg P (Oct 1972). "Biochemical method for inserting new genetic information into Deoxyribonucleic acid of Simian Virus twoscore: round SV40 Dna molecules containing lambda phage genes and the galactose operon of Escherichia coli". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the Usa. 69 (10): 2904–9. Bibcode:1972PNAS...69.2904J. doi: x.1073/pnas.69.10.2904 . PMC 389671 . PMID4342968.
22. ^ M. K. Sateesh (25 August 2008). Bioethics And Biosafety . I. Thousand. International Pvt Ltd. pp. 456–. ISBN 978-81-906757-0-3 . Retrieved 27 March 2013.
23. ^ Jaenisch, R. and Mintz, B. (1974 ) Simian virus 40 DNA sequences in DNA of good for you developed mice derived from preimplantation blastocysts injected with viral DNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. 71(4): 1250–54 [1]
24. ^ "'Any idiot can practice it.' Genome editor CRISPR could put mutant mice in everyone's reach". Science | AAAS. 2016-11-02. Retrieved 2016-12-02 .
25. ^ Gordon JW, Ruddle FH (Dec 1981). "Integration and stable germ line transmission of genes injected into mouse pronuclei". Scientific discipline. 214 (4526): 1244–half-dozen. Bibcode:1981Sci...214.1244G. doi:10.1126/science.6272397. PMID6272397.
26. ^ Costantini F, Lacy E (November 1981). "Introduction of a rabbit beta-globin gene into the mouse germ line". Nature. 294 (5836): 92–iv. Bibcode:1981Natur.294...92C. doi:10.1038/294092a0. PMID6945481. S2CID4371351.
27. ^ Hanahan D, Wagner EF, Palmiter RD (September 2007). "The origins of oncomice: a history of the outset transgenic mice genetically engineered to develop cancer". Genes & Evolution. 21 (xviii): 2258–70. doi: ten.1101/gad.1583307 . PMID17875663.
28. ^ Brophy B, Smolenski G, Wheeler T, Wells D, L'Huillier P, Laible G (February 2003). "Cloned transgenic cattle produce milk with higher levels of beta-casein and kappa-casein". Nature Biotechnology. 21 (2): 157–62. doi:10.1038/nbt783. PMID12548290. S2CID45925486.
29. ^ Clark AJ (July 1998). "The mammary gland as a bioreactor: expression, processing, and production of recombinant proteins". Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia. three (3): 337–50. doi:10.1023/a:1018723712996. PMID10819519.
30. ^ Gordon K, Lee E, Vitale JA, Smith AE, Westphal H, Hennighausen L (1987). "Production of human tissue plasminogen activator in transgenic mouse milk. 1987". Biotechnology. 24 (xi): 425–eight. doi:10.1038/nbt1187-1183. PMID1422049. S2CID3261903.
31. ^ Vàzquez-Salat N, Salter B, Smets 1000, Houdebine LM (2012-eleven-01). "The current country of GMO governance: are we gear up for GM animals?". Biotechnology Advances. Special issue on ACB 2011. 30 (6): 1336–43. doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2012.02.006. PMID22361646.
32. ^ "CNN.com - Glowing fish to be first genetically inverse pet - Nov. 21, 2003". edition.cnn.com . Retrieved 2022-12-25 .
33. ^ "Aquabounty Cleared to Sell Salmon in USA for Commercial Purposes". FDA. 2022-06-nineteen.
34. ^ Bodnar, Anastasia (Oct 2010). "Risk Assessment and Mitigation of AquAdvantage Salmon" (PDF). ISB News Report. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-03-08. Retrieved 2022-12-25 .
35. ^ Rudinko, Larisa (20). Guidance for industry. USA: Center for veterinary medicine Link.
36. ^ ^{a b} Perleberg C, Kind A, Schnieke A (Jan 2022). "Genetically engineered pigs equally models for man illness". Disease Models & Mechanisms. 11 (1): dmm030783. doi:10.1242/dmm.030783. PMC 5818075 . PMID29419487.
37. ^ Sato 1000, Sasaki Due east (February 2022). "Genetic technology in nonhuman primates for human disease modeling". Journal of Human Genetics. 63 (ii): 125–131. doi: x.1038/s10038-017-0351-five . PMC 8075926 . PMID29203824.
38. ^ Sasaki East, Suemizu H, Shimada A, Hanazawa G, Oiwa R, Kamioka M, Tomioka I, Sotomaru Y, Hirakawa R, Eto T, Shiozawa S, Maeda T, Ito Thousand, Ito R, Kito C, Yagihashi C, Kawai K, Miyoshi H, Tanioka Y, Tamaoki North, Habu Southward, Okano H, Nomura T (May 2009). "Generation of transgenic non-human primates with germline manual". Nature. 459 (7246): 523–7. Bibcode:2009Natur.459..523S. doi:10.1038/nature08090. PMID19478777. S2CID4404433.
39. ^ Schatten G, Mitalipov Southward (May 2009). "Developmental biology: Transgenic primate offspring". Nature. 459 (7246): 515–six. Bibcode:2009Natur.459..515S. doi:10.1038/459515a. PMC 2777739 . PMID19478771.
40. ^ Cyranoski D (May 2009). "Marmoset model takes centre stage". Nature. 459 (7246): 492. doi: x.1038/459492a . PMID19478751.
41. ^ Britt Erickson, 10 February 2009, for Chemical & Engineering News. FDA Approves Drug From Transgenic Goat Milk Accessed vi Oct 2012
42. ^ Spencer LT, Humphries JE, Brantly ML (May 2005). "Antibody response to aerosolized transgenic homo alpha1-antitrypsin". The New England Journal of Medicine. 352 (nineteen): 2030–1. doi:ten.1056/nejm200505123521923. PMID15888711.
43. ^ Editing of Grunter DNA May Pb to More than Organs for People
44. ^ Zeyland J, Gawrońska B, Juzwa Westward, Jura J, Nowak A, Słomski R, Smorąg Z, Szalata M, Woźniak A, Lipiński D (August 2013). "Transgenic pigs designed to express human α-galactosidase to avoid humoral xenograft rejection". Journal of Applied Genetics. 54 (3): 293–303. doi:10.1007/s13353-013-0156-y. PMC 3720986 . PMID23780397.
45. ^ GTKO study conducted past the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute of the U.S. National Institutes of Health
46. ^ New life for squealer-to-human transplants
47. ^ United Therapeutics considering sus scrofa-lungs for transplant into humans
48. ^ Wu J, Platero-Luengo A, Sakurai M, Sugawara A, Gil MA, Yamauchi T, Suzuki G, Bogliotti YS, Cuello C, Morales Valencia M, Okumura D, Luo J, Vilariño M, Parrilla I, Soto DA, Martinez CA, Hishida T, Sánchez-Bautista S, Martinez-Martinez ML, Wang H, Nohalez A, Aizawa E, Martinez-Redondo P, Ocampo A, Reddy P, Roca J, Maga EA, Esteban CR, Berggren WT, Nuñez Delicado E, Lajara J, Guillen I, Guillen P, Campistol JM, Martinez EA, Ross PJ, Izpisua Belmonte JC (January 2017). "Interspecies Chimerism with Mammalian Pluripotent Stalk Cells". Cell. 168 (3): 473–486.e15. doi:x.1016/j.cell.2016.12.036. PMC 5679265 . PMID28129541.
49. ^ Lai L, Kang JX, Li R, Wang J, Witt WT, Yong HY, et al. (April 2006). "Generation of cloned transgenic pigs rich in omega-iii fatty acids". Nature Biotechnology. 24 (4): 435–vi. doi:ten.1038/nbt1198. PMC 2976610 . PMID16565727.
50. ^ Tucker I (2022-06-24). "Genetically modified animals". The Guardian. ISSN0261-3077 . Retrieved 2022-12-21 .
51. ^ Zyga L (2010). "Scientist bred goats that produce spider silk". Phys.org. Archived from the original on xxx Apr 2015.
52. ^ "These GMO Goats Could Save Lives. Fear and Confusion Preclude It". Undark . Retrieved 2022-10-02 .
53. ^ ^{a b c d} Guelph (2010). Enviropig Archived 2016-01-30 at the Wayback Car. Canada:
54. ^ Schimdt, Sarah. "Genetically engineered pigs killed subsequently funding ends", Postmedia News, 22 June 2012. Accessed 31 July 2012.
55. ^ Golovan SP, Meidinger RG, Ajakaiye A, Cottrill One thousand, Wiederkehr MZ, Barney DJ, Plante C, Pollard JW, Fan MZ, Hayes MA, Laursen J, Hjorth JP, Hacker RR, Phillips JP, Forsberg CW, et al. (August 2001). "Pigs expressing salivary phytase produce low-phosphorus manure". Nature Biotechnology. 19 (viii): 741–5. doi:10.1038/90788. PMID11479566. S2CID52853680.
56. ^ ^{a b} Canada. "Enviropig – Ecology Benefits | University of Guelph". Uoguelph.ca. Archived from the original on 2017-10-thirty.
57. ^ Leung, Wendy. Academy of Guelph left foraging for Enviropig funding, The Globe and Postal service, Apr. two, 2012. Accessed July 31, 2012.
58. ^ Schimdt, Sarah. Genetically engineered pigs killed after funding ends, Postmedia News, June 22, 2012. Accessed July 31, 2012.
59. ^ Lai 50, Kang JX, Li R, Wang J, Witt WT, Yong HY, Hao Y, Wax DM, Potato CN, Rieke A, Samuel Thou, Linville ML, Korte SW, Evans RW, Starzl TE, Prather RS, Dai Y (April 2006). "Generation of cloned transgenic pigs rich in omega-3 fatty acids" (PDF). Nature Biotechnology. 24 (iv): 435–6. doi:10.1038/nbt1198. PMC 2976610 . PMID16565727. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-08-16.
60. ^ "Herman the bull - Herman becomes a male parent. "Biotech Notes."". U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1994. Archived from the original on 2008-12-03.
61. ^ "Herman the balderdash heads to greener pastures". Expatica News. Apr 2, 2004. Archived from the original on July 29, 2014. Retrieved December 24, 2022.
62. ^ ^{a b c} Expatica News (2 April 2004). Herman the balderdash heads to greener pastures. Accessed on 3 Jan 2009 from http://www.expatica.com/nl/news/local_news/herman-the-bull-heads-to-greener-pastures--6273.html Archived 2014-07-29 at the Wayback Machine
63. ^ ^{a b c} Naturalis (2008). Herman the Balderdash stabled in Naturalis. Accessed 3 January 2009 from http://www.naturalis.nl/naturalis%2Een/naturalis%2Een/i000968%2Ehtml . Retrieved 3 September 2014. ^{[ dead link ]}
64. ^ "CRISPR Bacon: Chinese Scientists Create Genetically Modified Low-Fat Pigs". NPR.org. 2017-10-23.
65. ^ Hall, M. (April 28, 2013). "Scientists pattern 'wellness and safety' cow with no horns". The Telegraph. Retrieved December xviii, 2015.
66. ^ Gray, Richard (2011). "Genetically modified cows produce 'human' milk". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on April 4, 2011.
67. ^ Classical Medicine Journal (14 April 2010). "Genetically modified cows producing human milk". Archived from the original on 6 November 2014.
68. ^ Yapp R (xi June 2011). "Scientists create cow that produces 'man' milk". The Daily Telegraph . London. Retrieved 15 June 2012.
69. ^ Classical Medicine Journal (14 April 2010). "Genetically modified cows producing human milk". Archived from the original on 2014-11-06.
70. ^ Yapp, Robin (11 June 2011). "Scientists create cow that produces 'human' milk". The Daily Telegraph . London. Retrieved fifteen June 2012.
71. ^ Jabed A, Wagner South, McCracken J, Wells DN, Laible M (Oct 2012). "Targeted microRNA expression in dairy cattle directs production of β-lactoglobulin-free, high-casein milk". Proceedings of the National University of Sciences of the United States of America. 109 (42): 16811–vi. Bibcode:2012PNAS..10916811J. doi: x.1073/pnas.1210057109 . PMC 3479461 . PMID23027958.
72. ^ "Cloned balderdash could contribute to development of disease-resistant African cattle". ILRI news. 2016-09-05. Retrieved 2022-07-24 .
73. ^ Pal, Aruna; Chakravarty, A. K. (22 October 2022). Genetics and breeding for disease resistance of livestock. London, United Kingdom: Academic Press. pp. 271–296. doi:x.1016/b978-0-12-816406-viii.00019-x. ISBN 978-0-12-817267-four . OCLC1125327298. S2CID208596567. ISBN978-0-12-816406-8 p.276
74. ^ "Light-green fluorescent protein takes Nobel prize". Lewis Brindley. Retrieved 2015-05-31 .
75. ^ Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002). "Studying Gene Expression and Function". Molecular Biology of the Prison cell (quaternary ed.).
76. ^ Randall Southward (2008). e Harding S, p Tombs M (eds.). "Genetically Modified Pigs for Medicine and Agriculture" (PDF). Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering Reviews. 25: 245–66. doi:ten.7313/upo9781904761679.011. ISBN 9781904761679 . PMID21412358. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 March 2014.
77. ^ Wongsrikeao P, Saenz D, Rinkoski T, Otoi T, Poeschla E (September 2011). "Antiviral restriction factor transgenesis in the domestic true cat". Nature Methods. 8 (10): 853–ix. doi:ten.1038/nmeth.1703. PMC 4006694 . PMID21909101.
78. ^ Staff (3 April 2012). "Biology of HIV". National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. Archived from the original on 11 April 2014.
79. ^ "Scientists brood goats that produce spider silk". Lisa Zyga , Phys.org. Retrieved May 31, 2010.
80. ^ Angulo E, Cooke B (December 2002). "First synthesize new viruses so regulate their release? The case of the wild rabbit". Molecular Ecology. xi (12): 2703–9. doi:10.1046/j.1365-294X.2002.01635.x. hdl: 10261/45541 . PMID12453252. S2CID23916432.
81. ^ Biello, David. "Aboriginal Dna Could Return Rider Pigeons to the Sky". Scientific American . Retrieved 2022-12-23 .
82. ^ Association, Penny Sarchet, Printing. "Tin we grow woolly mammoths in the lab? George Church hopes then". New Scientist . Retrieved 2022-12-23 .
83. ^ Selkirk SM (October 2004). "Factor therapy in clinical medicine". Postgraduate Medical Journal. fourscore (948): 560–70. doi:10.1136/pgmj.2003.017764. PMC 1743106 . PMID15466989.
84. ^ Cavazzana-Calvo M, Fischer A (June 2007). "Gene therapy for severe combined immunodeficiency: are we there however?". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 117 (6): 1456–65. doi:10.1172/JCI30953. PMC 1878528 . PMID17549248.
85. ^ Richards, Sabrina (half-dozen November 2012) "Factor therapy arrives in Europe" The Scientist, Retrieved 15 April 2013
86. ^ Rosenecker J, Huth Southward, Rudolph C (October 2006). "Gene therapy for cystic fibrosis lung illness: current status and time to come perspectives". Current Opinion in Molecular Therapeutics. eight (5): 439–45. PMID17078386.
87. ^ Persons DA, Nienhuis AW (July 2003). "Cistron therapy for the hemoglobin disorders". Current Hematology Reports. two (four): 348–55. PMID12901333.
88. ^ LeWitt PA, Rezai AR, Leehey MA, Ojemann SG, Flaherty AW, Eskandar EN, Kostyk SK, Thomas Yard, Sarkar A, Siddiqui MS, Tatter SB, Schwalb JM, Poston KL, Henderson JM, Kurlan RM, Richard IH, Van Meter L, Sapan CV, During MJ, Kaplitt MG, Feigin A (April 2011). "AAV2-GAD gene therapy for avant-garde Parkinson'due south disease: a double-bullheaded, sham-surgery controlled, randomised trial". The Lancet. Neurology. 10 (4): 309–nineteen. doi:x.1016/S1474-4422(11)70039-four. PMID21419704. S2CID37154043.
89. ^ Gallaher, James "Gene therapy 'treats' Parkinson'southward disease" BBC News Health, 17 March 2011. Retrieved 24 April 2011
90. ^ Urbina, Zachary (12 February 2013) "Genetically Engineered Virus Fights Liver Cancer Archived 16 February 2013 at the Wayback Machine" United Academics, Retrieved 15 February 2013
91. ^ "Handling for Leukemia Is Showing Early Hope". The New York Times . Associated Press. 11 August 2011. p. A15. Retrieved 21 January 2013.
92. ^ Coghlan, Andy (26 March 2013) "Cistron therapy cures leukaemia in eight days" The New Scientist, Retrieved fifteen April 2013
93. ^ Staff (13 Feb 2013) "Gene therapy cures diabetic dogs" New Scientist, Retrieved xv February 2013
94. ^ (xxx April 2013) "New gene therapy trial gives hope to people with heart failure" British Middle Foundation, Retrieved v May 2013
95. ^ Foster K, Foster H, Dickson JG (December 2006). "Factor therapy progress and prospects: Duchenne muscular dystrophy". Gene Therapy. xiii (24): 1677–85. doi: 10.1038/sj.gt.3302877 . PMID17066097.
96. ^ "1990 The Annunciation of Inuyama". 5 Baronial 2001. Archived from the original on 5 August 2001. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
97. ^ Smith KR, Chan Southward, Harris J (Oct 2012). "Human germline genetic modification: scientific and bioethical perspectives". Arch Med Res. 43 (7): 491–513. doi:10.1016/j.arcmed.2012.09.003. PMID23072719.
98. ^ Kolata, Gina (23 April 2015). "Chinese Scientists Edit Genes of Human Embryos, Raising Concerns". The New York Times . Retrieved 24 April 2015.
99. ^ Liang P, Xu Y, Zhang 10, Ding C, Huang R, Zhang Z, Lv J, Xie X, Chen Y, Li Y, Sun Y, Bai Y, Songyang Z, Ma Due west, Zhou C, Huang J (May 2015). "CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing in human tripronuclear zygotes". Protein & Cell. 6 (5): 363–372. doi:10.1007/s13238-015-0153-5. PMC 4417674 . PMID25894090.
100. ^ Begley, Sharon (28 November 2022). "Amongst uproar, Chinese scientist defends creating gene-edited babies – STAT". STAT.
101. ^ "Half Of Fish Consumed Globally Is Now Raised On Farms, Report Finds". ScienceDaily . Retrieved 2022-12-21 .
102. ^ Tonelli, Fernanda M.P.; Lacerda, Samyra Thousand.Southward.Due north.; Tonelli, Flávia C.P.; Costa, Guilherme 1000.J.; De França, Luiz Renato; Resende, Rodrigo R. (2017-eleven-01). "Progress and biotechnological prospects in fish transgenesis". Biotechnology Advances. 35 (6): 832–844. doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2017.06.002. ISSN0734-9750. PMID28602961.
103. ^ Nebert DW, Stuart GW, Solis WA, Carvan MJ (January 2002). "Utilize of reporter genes and vertebrate Dna motifs in transgenic zebrafish as sentinels for assessing aquatic pollution". Environmental Health Perspectives. 110 (1): A15. doi:10.1289/ehp.110-a15. PMC 1240712 . PMID11813700.
104. ^ Mattingly CJ, McLachlan JA, Toscano WA (Baronial 2001). "Green fluorescent poly peptide (GFP) as a marker of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) function in developing zebrafish (Danio rerio)". Ecology Health Perspectives. 109 (eight): 845–nine. doi:10.1289/ehp.01109845. PMC 1240414 . PMID11564622.
105. ^ Hallerman E (June 2004). "Glofish, the first GM animal commercialized: profits amidst controversy". ISB News Report.
106. ^ Hackett Atomic number 82, Ekker SE, Essner JJ (2004). "Chapter sixteen: Applications of transposable elements in fish for transgenesis and functional genomics". In Gong Z, Korzh 5 (eds.). Fish Development and Genetics. World Scientific, Inc. pp. 532–80.
107. ^ Meyers JR (2022). "Zebrafish: Development of a Vertebrate Model Organism". Current Protocols in Essential Laboratory techniques. 16 (1): e19. doi: 10.1002/cpet.19 .
108. ^ Lu JW, Ho YJ, Ciou SC, Gong Z (September 2017). "Innovative Disease Model: Zebrafish equally an In Vivo Platform for Intestinal Disorder and Tumors". Biomedicines. 5 (4): 58. doi: 10.3390/biomedicines5040058 . PMC 5744082 . PMID28961226.
109. ^ Barriuso J, Nagaraju R, Hurlstone A (March 2015). "Zebrafish: a new companion for translational research in oncology". Clinical Cancer Inquiry. 21 (5): 969–75. doi:10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-14-2921. PMC 5034890 . PMID25573382.
110. ^ Burket CT, Montgomery JE, Thummel R, Kassen SC, LaFave MC, Langenau DM, Zon LI, Hyde DR (April 2008). "Generation and characterization of transgenic zebrafish lines using different ubiquitous promoters". Transgenic Research. 17 (2): 265–79. doi:10.1007/s11248-007-9152-5. PMC 3660017 . PMID17968670.
111. ^ Du SJ, Gong Z, Fletcher GL, Shears MA, King MJ, Idler DR, Hew CL (1992). "Growth Enhancement in Transgenic Atlantic Salmon past the Apply of an 'All Fish' Chimeric Growth Hormone Gene Construct". Nature Biotechnology. 10 (2): 176–81. doi:x.1038/nbt0292-176. PMID1368229. S2CID27048646.
112. ^ Devlin RH, Biagi CA, Yesaki TY, Smailus DE, Byatt JC (February 2001). "Growth of domesticated transgenic fish". Nature. 409 (6822): 781–two. Bibcode:2001Natur.409..781D. doi:10.1038/35057314. PMID11236982. S2CID5293883.
113. ^ Rahman MA, et al. (2001). "Growth and nutritional trials on transgenic Nile tilapia containing an exogenous fish growth hormone gene". Periodical of Fish Biology. 59 (one): 62–78. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2001.tb02338.x.
114. ^ Pollack A (21 December 2012). "Engineered Fish Moves a Step Closer to Approval". The New York Times.
115. ^ ^{a b c d} "FDA: Genetically engineered fish would not harm nature". Us Today. 2012. Retrieved November 28, 2015.
116. ^ ^{a b} Firger, J. (2014). "Controversy swims around genetically modified fish". CBS News . Retrieved November 28, 2015.
117. ^ Ecology Assessment for AquAdvantage Salmon
118. ^ ^{a b} Steenhuysen, J.; Polansek, T. (November nineteen, 2015). "U.South. clears genetically modified salmon for homo consumption". Reuters. Retrieved November 20, 2015.
119. ^ "AquAdvantage Salmon". FDA. Retrieved twenty July 2022.
120. ^ "FDA Has Determined That the AquAdvantage Salmon is as Safe to Eat every bit Non-GE Salmon". U.S. Nutrient & Drug Administration. 19 Nov 2015. Retrieved 9 February 2022.
121. ^ Connor Southward. (2012). "Gear up to swallow: the beginning GM fish for the dinner tabular array". The Independent . Retrieved November 28, 2015.
122. ^ "Online Education Kit: 1981–82: First Transgenic Mice and Fruit Flies". genome.gov.
123. ^ Weasner BM, Zhu J, Kumar JP (2017). "FLPing Genes On and Off in Drosophila". Site-Specific Recombinases. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 1642. pp. 195–209. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-7169-5_13. ISBN 978-ane-4939-7167-ane . PMC 5858584 . PMID28815502.
124. ^ Jennings, Barbara H. (2011-05-01). "Drosophila – a versatile model in biology & medicine". Materials Today. 14 (5): 190–195. doi: 10.1016/S1369-7021(xi)70113-four .
125. ^ Ren X, Holsteens Yard, Li H, Sun J, Zhang Y, Liu LP, Liu Q, Ni JQ (May 2017). "Genome editing in Drosophila melanogaster: from basic genome engineering to the multipurpose CRISPR-Cas9 organization". Science China Life Sciences. lx (5): 476–489. doi:10.1007/s11427-017-9029-nine. PMID28527116. S2CID4341967.
126. ^ Gallagher, James "GM mosquitoes offering malaria promise" BBC News, Health, 20 April 2011. Retrieved 22 April 2011
127. ^ Corby-Harris Five, Drexler A, Watkins de Jong 50, Antonova Y, Pakpour N, Ziegler R, Ramberg F, Lewis EE, Chocolate-brown JM, Luckhart S, Riehle MA (July 2010). Vernick KD (ed.). "Activation of Akt signaling reduces the prevalence and intensity of malaria parasite infection and lifespan in Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes". PLOS Pathogens. 6 (vii): e1001003. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1001003. PMC 2904800 . PMID20664791.
128. ^ Windbichler N, Menichelli 1000, Papathanos PA, Thyme SB, Li H, Ulge UY, Hovde BT, Baker D, Monnat RJ, Burt A, Crisanti A (May 2011). "A synthetic homing endonuclease-based gene drive system in the human malaria mosquito". Nature. 473 (7346): 212–5. Bibcode:2011Natur.473..212W. doi:10.1038/nature09937. PMC 3093433 . PMID21508956.
129. ^ Wise de Valdez MR, Nimmo D, Betz J, Gong HF, James AA, Alphey L, Black WC (March 2011). "Genetic elimination of dengue vector mosquitoes". Proceedings of the National University of Sciences of the United States of America. 108 (12): 4772–5. Bibcode:2011PNAS..108.4772W. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1019295108 . PMC 3064365 . PMID21383140.
130. ^ ^{a b} Knapton, Sarah (six February 2016). "Releasing millions of GM mosquitoes 'could solve zika crisis'". The Telegraph. Retrieved 14 March 2016.
131. ^ Harris AF, Nimmo D, McKemey AR, Kelly N, Scaife South, Donnelly CA, Beech C, Petrie WD, Alphey L (October 2011). "Field performance of engineered male mosquitoes". Nature Biotechnology. 29 (xi): 1034–7. doi:ten.1038/nbt.2022. PMID22037376. S2CID30862975.
132. ^ Staff (March 2011) "Cayman demonstrates RIDL potential" Oxitec Newsletter, March 2011. Retrieved xx September 2011
133. ^ Benedict MQ, Robinson AS (August 2003). "The first releases of transgenic mosquitoes: an argument for the sterile insect technique". Trends in Parasitology. 19 (viii): 349–55. doi:10.1016/s1471-4922(03)00144-2. PMID12901936.
134. ^ ^{a b} Zhang, Sarah (2017-09-08). "Genetically Modified Moths Come to New York". The Atlantic . Retrieved 2022-12-23 .
135. ^ Scharping, Nathaniel (2017-05-10). "After Mosquitos, Moths Are the Adjacent Target For Genetic Engineering". Discover Magazine . Retrieved 2022-12-23 .
136. ^ Reeves R, Phillipson One thousand (Jan 2017). "Mass Releases of Genetically Modified Insects in Area-Wide Pest Control Programs and Their Bear on on Organic Farmers". Sustainability. ix (1): 59. doi: ten.3390/su9010059 .
137. ^ Simmons GS, McKemey AR, Morrison NI, O'Connell S, Tabashnik BE, Claus J, Fu G, Tang G, Sledge Chiliad, Walker AS, Phillips CE, Miller ED, Rose RI, Staten RT, Donnelly CA, Alphey Fifty (2011-09-13). "Field functioning of a genetically engineered strain of pink bollworm". PLOS I. 6 (9): e24110. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...624110S. doi: 10.1371/periodical.pone.0024110 . PMC 3172240 . PMID21931649.
138. ^ Xu H, O'Brochta DA (July 2015). "Advanced technologies for genetically manipulating the silkworm Bombyx mori, a model Lepidopteran insect". Proceedings. Biological Sciences. 282 (1810): 20150487. doi:ten.1098/rspb.2015.0487. PMC 4590473 . PMID26108630.
139. ^ Tomita M (April 2011). "Transgenic silkworms that weave recombinant proteins into silk cocoons". Biotechnology Messages. 33 (4): 645–54. doi:ten.1007/s10529-010-0498-z. PMID21184136. S2CID25310446.
140. ^ Xu J, Dong Q, Yu Y, Niu B, Ji D, Li K, Huang Y, Chen Ten, Tan A (Baronial 2022). "Bombyx mori". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.s. of America. 115 (35): 8757–8762. doi: x.1073/pnas.1806805115 . PMC 6126722 . PMID30082397.
141. ^ Le Folio Grand. "GM worms make a super-silk completely unknown in nature". New Scientist . Retrieved 2022-12-23 .
142. ^ Scott, B.B.; Lois, C. (2005). "Generation of tissue-specific transgenic birds with lentiviral vectors". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.s.A. 102 (45): 16443–16447. Bibcode:2005PNAS..10216443S. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0508437102 . PMC 1275601 . PMID16260725.
143. ^ "Poultry scientists develop transgenic craven to aid study of embryo evolution". projects.ncsu.edu . Retrieved 2022-12-23 .
144. ^ "Genetically modified chickens that don't transmit bird influenza adult; Breakthrough could preclude future bird flu epidemics". ScienceDaily . Retrieved 2022-12-23 .
145. ^ ^{a b} Botelho JF, Smith-Paredes D, Soto-Acuña S, O'Connor J, Palma V, Vargas AO (March 2016). "Molecular development of fibular reduction in birds and its evolution from dinosaurs". Evolution; International Periodical of Organic Development. 70 (3): 543–54. doi:10.1111/evo.12882. PMC 5069580 . PMID26888088.
146. ^ Becker R (2015). "United states government approves transgenic chicken". Nature News. doi:10.1038/nature.2015.18985. S2CID181399746.
147. ^ "GM chickens that don't transmit bird flu". The University of Edinburgh. Retrieved September 3, 2015.
148. ^ Landers, Jackson (November ten, 2014). "Paleontologist Jack Horner is hard at piece of work trying to turn a chicken into a dinosaur". The Washington Times . Retrieved January 19, 2015.
149. ^ Horner JR, Gorman J (2009). How to build a dinosaur: extinction doesn't take to be forever. New York: Dutton. ISBN 978-0-525-95104-9 . OCLC233549535.
150. ^ Reverse Engineering science Birds' Beaks Into Dinosaur Basic by Carl Zimmer, NY Times, May 12, 2015
151. ^ Francisco Botelho J, Smith-Paredes D, Soto-Acuña South, Mpodozis J, Palma V, Vargas AO (May 2015). "Skeletal plasticity in response to embryonic muscular activity underlies the evolution and evolution of the perching digit of birds". Scientific Reports. v: 9840. Bibcode:2015NatSR...5E9840F. doi:x.1038/srep09840. PMC 4431314 . PMID25974685.
152. ^ Fini JB, Le Mevel Southward, Turque N, Palmier Yard, Zalko D, Cravedi JP, Demeneix BA (Baronial 2007). "An in vivo multiwell-based fluorescent screen for monitoring vertebrate thyroid hormone disruption". Environmental Science & Technology. 41 (sixteen): 5908–14. Bibcode:2007EnST...41.5908F. doi:x.1021/es0704129. PMID17874805.
153. ^ "Removing Threat from Invasive Species with Genetic Engineering?". Scientific discipline in the News. 2014-07-28. Retrieved 2022-12-23 .
154. ^ "Cane toads to get the Crispr handling". Radio National. 2017-11-17. Retrieved 2022-12-23 .
155. ^ "History of research on C. elegans and other free-living nematodes as model organisms". world wide web.wormbook.org . Retrieved 2022-12-24 .
156. ^ Hopkin, Michael (2006-10-02). "RNAi scoops medical Nobel". News@nature. doi:ten.1038/news061002-2. ISSN1744-7933. S2CID85168270.
157. ^ Conte D, MacNeil LT, Walhout AJ, Mello CC (Jan 2015). RNA Interference in Caenorhabditis elegans. Current Protocols in Molecular Biology. Vol. 109. pp. 26.iii.1–30. doi:10.1002/0471142727.mb2603s109. ISBN 9780471142720 . PMC 5396541 . PMID25559107.
158. ^ ^{a b} Praitis V, Maduro MF (2011). "Transgenesis in C. elegans". Caenorhabditis elegans: Molecular Genetics and Evolution. Methods in Cell Biology. Vol. 106. pp. 161–85. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-544172-8.00006-ii. ISBN 9780125441728 . PMID22118277.
159. ^ Diogo J, Bratanich A (Nov 2014). "The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans as a model to written report viruses". Archives of Virology. 159 (11): 2843–51. doi:10.1007/s00705-014-2168-2. PMID25000902. S2CID18865352.
160. ^ Tejeda-Benitez L, Olivero-Verbel J (2016). "Caenorhabditis elegans, a Biological Model for Research in Toxicology". Reviews of Environmental Contagion and Toxicology Volume 237. Reviews of Ecology Contamination and Toxicology. Vol. 237. pp. 1–35. doi:10.1007/978-three-319-23573-8_1. ISBN 978-3-319-23572-ane . PMID26613986.
161. ^ Schmidt J, Schmidt T (2022). "Creature Models of Machado-Joseph Disease". Polyglutamine Disorders. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biological science. Vol. 1049. pp. 289–308. doi:10.1007/978-iii-319-71779-1_15. ISBN 978-3-319-71778-4 . PMID29427110.
162. ^ Griffin EF, Caldwell KA, Caldwell GA (December 2017). "Genetic and Pharmacological Discovery for Alzheimer'south Illness Using Caenorhabditis elegans". ACS Chemical Neuroscience. viii (12): 2596–2606. doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.7b00361. PMID29022701.
163. ^ Daniells C, Mutwakil MH, Ability RS, David HE, De Pomerai DI (2002). "Transgenic Nematodes as Biosensors of Environmental Stress". Biotechnology for the Environment: Strategy and Fundamentals. Focus on Biotechnology. Springer, Dordrecht. pp. 221–236. doi:10.1007/978-94-010-0357-5_15. ISBN 9789401039079 .
164. ^ "More than valuable than gold, but non for long: genetically-modified sea cucumbers headed to Communist china'south dinner tables". S Mainland china Morn Post. 2015-08-05. Retrieved 2022-12-23 .
165. ^ Zeng A, Li H, Guo L, Gao X, McKinney Southward, Wang Y, Yu Z, Park J, Semerad C, Ross E, Cheng LC, Davies E, Lei 1000, Wang Due west, Perera A, Hall K, Superlative A, Box A, Sánchez Alvarado A (June 2022). "+ Neoblasts Are Adult Pluripotent Stalk Cells Underlying Planaria Regeneration". Cell. 173 (7): 1593–1608.e20. doi:ten.1016/j.cell.2022.05.006. PMID29906446.
     • "I special jail cell can revive a flatworm on the brink of decease" . Nature. xiv June 2022.
166. ^ Wudarski J, Simanov D, Ustyantsev K, de Mulder Thou, Grelling One thousand, Grudniewska M, Beltman F, Glazenburg Fifty, Demircan T, Wunderer J, Qi W, Vizoso DB, Weissert PM, Olivieri D, Mouton Due south, Guryev Five, Aboobaker A, Schärer L, Ladurner P, Berezikov Due east (Dec 2017). "Efficient transgenesis and annotated genome sequence of the regenerative flatworm model Macrostomum lignano". Nature Communications. viii (1): 2120. Bibcode:2017NatCo...8.2120W. doi:10.1038/s41467-017-02214-viii. PMC 5730564 . PMID29242515.
167. ^ Zantke J, Bannister S, Rajan VB, Raible F, Tessmar-Raible K (May 2014). "Genetic and genomic tools for the marine annelid Platynereis dumerilii". Genetics. 197 (one): 19–31. doi:ten.1534/genetics.112.148254. PMC 4012478 . PMID24807110.
168. ^ Wittlieb J, Khalturin K, Lohmann JU, Anton-Erxleben F, Bosch TC (April 2006). "Transgenic Hydra let in vivo tracking of private stem cells during morphogenesis". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 103 (sixteen): 6208–xi. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.6208W. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0510163103 . PMC 1458856 . PMID16556723.
169. ^ Perry KJ, Henry JQ (February 2015). "CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome modification in the mollusc, Crepidula fornicata". Genesis. 53 (2): 237–44. doi:10.1002/dvg.22843. PMID25529990. S2CID36057310.
170. ^ Nomura T, Yamashita W, Gotoh H, Ono Yard (2015-02-24). "Genetic manipulation of reptilian embryos: toward an understanding of cortical development and evolution". Frontiers in Neuroscience. 9: 45. doi: x.3389/fnins.2015.00045 . PMC 4338674 . PMID25759636.
171. ^ Rasmussen RS, Morrissey MT (2007). "Biotechnology in Aquaculture: Transgenics and Polyploidy". Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. half dozen (1): ii–xvi. doi:10.1111/j.1541-4337.2007.00013.x.
172. ^ Ebert MS, Sharp PA (November 2010). "MicroRNA sponges: progress and possibilities". RNA. 16 (11): 2043–l. doi:10.1261/rna.2414110. PMC 2957044 . PMID20855538.

How Does Genetically Engineered Animals Look Like

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_animal